Moscherosch – מֹשֶׁה ראֹשׁ

Moscherosch – מֹשֶׁה ראֹשׁ

by Shawn Henry Potter and Lois Carol Potter
renatuspress@gmail.com

Jeronimo Moscherosch (c. 1475-1545) was a Sephardic Jew who escaped from Aragon, Spain, following the publication of the March 31, 1492, Alhambra decree. This discussion examines his life and the lives of a few of his descendants to the present day.

Background

Between AD 711 and 720, Muslims conquered almost all the Iberian Peninsula by force of arms, establishing the Umayyad Caliphate. As Islamic warriors captured formerly Christian territory, they pressured Christian majority and Jewish minority populations to convert to Islam through a range of policies, including coercion (taxation), enticements (advancement), and persecution (segregation, enslavement, and execution). During the following centuries, as opportunities arose, Christians and Jews fled to the Catholic kingdoms in the north. Meanwhile, Muslim progress toward the goal of universal conversion advanced apace, so that, by about AD 1150, approximately 90% of the population in Muslim-controlled territory had converted to Islam.[1] The notion of a peaceful Convivencia with Christians and Jews in Muslim al-Andalus is a myth.[2]

Evening Prayer

During the first few centuries of Muslim rule, a few Jewish leaders emerged as an intermediary class between ruling Muslims and subservient Christians. Select Jewish scholars became ministers, counselors, and bankers. Some historians refer to this period as a “Golden Age” for Jews in al-Andalus. Yet, these Muslim policies were borne out of strategy rather than equality; and this so-called era of Jewish opportunity came to an end by about AD 1030 when the rise of Muslim antisemitic persecution led many Jewish communities to seek refuge in the northern Christian kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Navarra, Aragon, and Catalonia.[3]

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (July 16, 1212)

The Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula began immediately after the Muslim conquest, as Christian kingdoms in the north pushed southward with the assistance of neighboring European kingdoms. Christian territorial expansion demanded the replacement of Muslim authorities with Christian allies to secure the peace and stability of the realm. However, over time, reasonable concern about the potential danger of counterrevolutionary Islamic forces transformed into an un-Christian obsession with political, cultural, and religious unity.[4] Muslims were ordered to convert or leave the country; and civil inquisitorial institutions were established to affirm the sincerity of conversions. This xenophobia affected not only Muslims, but also Jews.

The Surrender of Granada (January 2, 1492)

On March 31, 1492 – three months after the defeat of the final Muslim stronghold of Granada on January 2, 1492 – King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain issued the Alhambra Decree, which required all Jews to leave the kingdom by July 31, 1492. The king and queen explained their motives as follows:

    • Jews inspired Christians to convert to Judaism,
    • the king and queen ordered the isolation of Jews, and
    • Jews continued to instruct Christians in the Jewish faith.

King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella argued that their action was designed to protect Christians from the influence of Judaism.[5] Since Jews in Spain comprised less than ten percent of the total population and Judaism does not have an evangelical tradition, this royal justification seems implausible. What was this decree really about? Did King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella have an ulterior motive for expelling the Jews?

Expulsion of the Jews

The Alhambra Decree prohibited Jews from taking with them “gold or silver or coined money;” and the short four-month suspense for departure seems designed to prevent the liquidation of assets. A letter from the king and queen to their agent Rodrigo de Mercado, Governor of Medina del Campo, dated September 2, 1492, says:

As regards what you say about the goods which some people have taken from the Jews in their towns and lands, as well as outstanding debts, … whatever you find outside of their towns and lands in goods and other assets, seize it all according to the provision you have.[6]

History reveals numerous examples of rulers enriching themselves by stealing from their subjects. For example, between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved some 845 Catholic monasteries, enriching himself by approximately $154 million in today’s currency. Henry VIII defended his theft with the false claim that he was eliminating Catholic corruption. See Dissolution of the Monasteries.

Whatever their motivation, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella betrayed their people and their faith when they expelled the Jews from their kingdom. Scholars estimate that approximately 200,000 Jews left the country, resettling in Portugal, Italy, North Africa, the Netherlands, and elsewhere.

At the Feet of the Savior, Slaughter of the Jews in the Middle Ages

Early History of Jews in the Iberian Peninsula

There has been a Jewish presence – called the diaspora – in numerous countries around the Mediterranean Sea for more than two thousand years. Medieval legends describe Jewish communities in Spain before the Babylonian Conquest of Jerusalem (597 BC); and contemporary accounts imply the presence of Jewish communities in Spain during the first century AD. For example, Paul wrote, in about AD 57, that that he intended to go to Spain; and Josephus wrote, in about AD 75, that Roman Emperor Gaius Caligula (AD 12-41) banished Herod Antipas (bef. 20 BC-aft. AD 39) to Spain.[7]

Jews from Spain and Portugal are referred to as Sephardim. The word Sephardic comes from the Hebrew word Sepharad (סְפָרַד), which means the Iberian Peninsula. Sephardim differ in several ways from Jews from the east, called Ashkenazim. (The Hebrew word Ashkenaz (אַשְׁכְּנָז) is the name of a son of Gomer, son of Noah.[8]) For example, Sephardim pronounce the Hebrew letter “r” (רֵישׁ) as an alveolar trill (with the tip of the tongue); whereas Ashkenazim pronounce the Hebrew letter “r” (רֵישׁ) as an uvular trill (with the back of the throat). The two groups also differ in terms of liturgy, clothing, music, cuisine, and diaspora languages (Sephardim speak Ladino and Ashkenazim speak Yiddish).

Procession of the Law

Jeronimo Moscherosch

One of these Sephardic refugees was Jeronimo Moscherosch (c. 1475-1545), who fled from Aragon, Spain, to Lisbon, Portugal, following the March 31, 1492, Alhambra Decree. He married Eufemia de Balbron in Lisbon in about 1498 and may have converted to Christianity during this period. Jeronimo and Eufemia had their first child, Marcelo Moscherosch, in Lisbon in about 1500. However, soon afterward, antisemitism disrupted their lives again. For, on April 19-21, 1506, mobs in Lisbon attacked and killed more than 1,900 Jewish converts to Christianity. Jeronimo and his family fled to the Netherlands and soon thereafter settled near Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, France, where they lived for the remainder of their lives.

Johann Michael Moscherosch

Records of the lives of Jeronimo Moscherosch and his wife Eufemia de Balbron have been preserved among the family papers of their fifth-generation descendant, Johann Michael Moscherosch (1601-1669).[9] Johann was born and raised in Willstätt, Baden, Germany – about eight miles from Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, France. He studied law, philosophy, and literature at the University of Strasbourg. Then, during his professional career, he served as steward for the Duke of Croy-Arschot, and legal advisor for the Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg, the Elector of Mainz, and the Landgrave of Hesse Kassel. But Johann is best known for his essays, poems, and short stories in Latin and German. His most famous work is Wunderliche und Wahrhafftige Gesichte Philanders von Sittewald (Wondrous and True Visions of Philander von Sittewald).[10]

View of Gutenberg Square in Strasbourg

Johann Michael Moscherosch inherited a memory of his Sephardic ancestry. For, in 1616, at the age of 15, he signed his name in Latin as “Johannes Michael Mosche Rosch Wilstadiensis Hanoicus,” separating his surname into two parts, Mosche and Rosch, demonstrating that he knew his name was composed of Mosche (מֹשֶׁה), the Hebrew word for Moses, and Rosch (ראֹשׁ), the Hebrew word for head.[11] His eponym – the ancestor of Jeronimo Moscherosch – may have been a certain Mosche Rosch (מֹשֶׁה ראֹשׁ), a leader, or rabbi, named Moses in the Sephardic community in Aragon, Spain.[12]

Furthermore, in one of his stories called Weltwissen (knowledge of the world) within his work Wunderliche und Wahrhafftige Gesichte Philanders von Sittewald, Johann Michael Moscherosch created an autobiographical character named Philander von Sittewald (Sittewald is an invented placename from a rearrangement of the letters in his hometown Willstätt).[13] As the story unfolds:

    • people in a crowd called Philander (alias Moscherosch) “a tall Spaniard.” This passage reveals that Moscherosch understood that his ancestors came from Spain.
    • a rabbi hailed Philander (alias Moscherosch) with a secret cypher spelling the name “Moscherosch.” This passage reveals that the character Philander represents Johann Michael Moscherosch himself.
    • the rabbi followed his initial call with: “Can’t you hear, you Hebrew Moseshead?” This passage identifies Johann Michael Moscherosch as Hebrew.
    • Philander (alias Moscherosch) noted that the rabbi referred to him by a German translation of his Hebrew name Moseshead (Moyseskopf in the original German text). This passage confirms that Moscherosch understood that his name is composed of the Hebrew words Mosche and Rosch.
    • Philander (alias Moscherosch) informed the rabbi that, although he had studied Hebrew under the Jewish professor Friedrich Blankenburg at the University of Strasbourg for five years, he could hardly “lure a dog from the stove” with the first three letters of the Hebrew alphabet אבג. This passage reveals that Moscherosch studied Hebrew at the University of Strasbourg but lamented his lack of progress.
    • The rabbi showed Philander (alias Moscherosch) an observant man, who was greater than “all the rabbis with their Schemhamphorias.” The German text reads: “alle Rabbiner mit ihrem Schemhamphorias.” In Hebrew, the phrase Shem hamphorash (שֵׁם הַמְּפֹרָשׁ) means “the explicit name,” i.e., the unspoken name of God – YHWH. This passage reveals that Moscherosch was acquainted with the teachings of the Jewish school of mysticism, referred to as Kabbalah, which emerged in Catalonia, Spain, during the 12th-century.
    • Philander (alias Moscherosch) described the rabbi as “honest and earnest,” and followed the rabbi throughout the city, as the rabbi taught him about vanity, truth, and morality. This passage reveals that Moscherosch respected the teachings of the rabbis.

Rabbi with Prayer Shawl

Scholarly Reflections on Moscherosch Sephardic Ancestors

In 1947, Curt von Faber du Faur (1890-1966), German-American historian, publisher, and writer, discussed the biography of Johann Michael Moscherosch and concluded that he was a descendant of Sephardic Jews. He further cited records about Jews in Spain during the 1200s, 1300s, and 1400s, which contain the names Joseph ben Rosch, Azach Abenrosch, Moses el Rosh, Abraham aben Ros, Moshe ha Rosh, and Rabbi Moses Aros, and deduced that the Sephardic Jewish Moscherosch family emigrated from Spain during the persecution of Jews and conversos.[14]

In 1964, Ernst Alfred Philippson (1900-1993), Jewish German-American philologist specializing in Germanic studies, concurred with the conclusions of Curt von Faber du Faur, noting: “The surname of the poet Joh. Michael Moscherosch does not come from an aristocratic Spanish de Museros (p. 186), but from the Hebrew Moshe Rosch (cf. Curt von Faber du Faur in the Zeitenhefte [Wisconsin], xxxix [1947], 485 ff.)”[15] In 1972, Philippson added: “The humanist (Hutten) also discovered in Arminius the national hero ‘Hermann,’ who in the Baroque period had to serve alongside Siegfried and other German warriors as a helper against the à la mode mischief (as Moscherosch, who – the author probably missed this – wrote the Germanic visions of Philander in order to disguise his descent from a Marrano Moshe Rosh (cf. C. von Faber du Faur in Jahreshefte, 39 [1947], 485-505).”[16]

In 2000, Professor Conrad Alan Kent (1942-2023), Professor Thomas Wolber (c. 1955-2021), and Writer Cameron Hewitt (c. 1977-) noted that the ancestors of the Moscherosch family were Sephardic Jews. They wrote: “A prime example of a German picaresque novel is John Michael Moscherosch’s (1601-1669) remarkable work Les Visiones de Don Francesco de Quevedo Villegas oder Wunderbare satirische Gesichte, verteutscht durch Philander von Sittewald (1640-42). Based on Quevedo’s Sueños of 1608 (German translation 1635) and on autobiographical elements (Moscherosch’s Jewish family had Aragonian roots), the novel represents the most comprehensive social criticism of the century and influenced Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen (c. 1622-1676), whose own German variation on the picaresque tradition in Der Abenteuerliche Simplicissimus Teutsch (1669) is also based on Spanish narratives.”[17]

In 2009, Professors Jeremy Adler (1947-) and Richard Fardon (-) noted that Johann Michael Moscherosch was a Sephardic Jew. They wrote: “There was an efflorescence of Jewish writers in the Weimar Republic, including figures such as Stefan Zweig and Ernst Toller, Arnold Döblin and Else Lasker-Schüller (Heuer 1992-2013; Gidal 1997: 390-93), but Steiner seems to have been the first to note that in the whole of German literary history, there were only three Sephardic Jews: Johann Michael Moscherosch, Julius Mosen and Canetti (Steiner 2009: 268).”[18]

Descendants of Jeronimo Moscherosch and Eufemia de Balbron

In 1854, Heinrich Dittmar (1792-1866), German pedagogue, historian, and author, published a short biography of Johann Michael Moscherosch based on handbooks of German literature, supplemented by family papers provided by a Moscherosch descendant.[19] Although Dittmar’s account incorrectly transforms the Sephardic Jewish Moscherosch family into a noble Spanish one, modern-day scholars agree that the frame of the story, recounted below, accurately preserves the names, dates, and places associated with the Sephardic Jewish ancestors of John Michael Moscherosch.

    • Jeronimo Moscherosch was born in Aragon, Spain, in about 1475. Jeronimo married Eufemia de Balbron, probably in Lisbon, Portugal, in about 1498. Eufemia was born in Spain in about 1478. Jeronimo died probably in Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, France, in about 1545. Eufemia died probably in Strasbourg in about 1548. Jeronimo and Eufemia were the parents of:
    • Marcelo Moscherosch was born probably in Lisbon, Portugal, in about 1500. Marcelo married Catarina de Vespenan probably in Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, France, in about 1526. Catarina was born probably in the Netherlands in about 1506. Marcelo died probably in Strasbourg in about 1570. Catarina died probably in Strasbourg in about 1576. Marcelo and Catarina were the parents of:
    • Maternus Moscherosch, Sr., was born probably in Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, France, in about 1527. Maternus married Magdalena Wanger probably in Haguenau, Bas-Rhin, France, in about 1551. Magdalena was born probably in Haguenau in about 1531. Maternus died probably in Haguenau in about 1617. Magdalena died probably in Haguenau in about 1601. Maternus and Magdalena were the parents of:
    • Maternus Moscherosch, Jr., was born probably in Haguenau, Bas-Rhin, France, in about 1553. Maternus married Apollonia Rittershofen probably in Haguenau in about 1576. Apollonia was born probably in Haguenau in about 1556. Maternus died probably in Willstätt, Baden, Germany, in about 1616. Apollonia died probably in Willstätt in about 1626. Maternus and Apollonia were the parents of:
    • Johann Michael Moscherosch was born probably in Haguenau, Bas-Rhin, France, in about 1578. Johann married Veronica Becker probably in Willstätt, Baden, Germany, in about 1600. Veronica was born probably in Willstätt on October 10, 1580. Johann died in Willstätt on July 2, 1636. Veronica died in Bischwiller, Bas-Rhin, France, on February 15, 1656. Johann and Veronica were the parents of:
    • Amelia Moscherosch (sister of the author Johann Michael Moscherosch) was born in Willstätt, Baden, Germany, on February 14, 1613. Amelia married Georg Mathias Schulmeister in Lichtenau, Baden, Germany, on September 16, 1629. Georg was born in Lichtenau in about 1605. Georg died in Bischweiler, Baden, Germany, on August 18, 1657. Amelia died in Lichtenau on July 4, 1667. Amelia and Georg were the parents of:
    • Maria Magdalena Schulmeister was born in Lichtenau, Baden, Germany, in about 1645. Maria married Georg König in Lichtenau on September 16, 1662. Georg was born probably in Scherzheim, Baden, Germany, in about 1640. Georg died in Scherzheim on November 21, 1687. Maria died in Muckenschopf, Baden, Germany, on July 4, 1699. Maria and Georg were the parents of:
    • Magdalena Margaretha König was born in Scherzheim, Baden, Germany, on February 27, 1676. Magdalena married Johann Georg Zimmer in Muckenschopf, Baden, Germany, on November 5, 1695. Johann was born in Muckenschopf on July 30, 1723. Johann died in Muckenschopf on March 7, 1723. Magdalena died in Muckenschopf on February 25, 1740. Magdalena and Johann were the parents of:
    • Anna Maria Zimmer was born in Muckenschopf, Baden, Germany, on February 9, 1700. Anna married Jacob Briß in Memprechtshofen, Baden, Germany, in about 1725. Johann was born probably in Memprechtshofen in about 1700. Jacob died probably in Memprechtshofen in about 1770. Anna died in Muckenschopf on December 11, 1776. Anna and Johann were the parents of:
    • Johann Georg Briß was born in Memprechtshofen, Baden, Germany, on April 18, 1726. Johann married Anna Maria Rösch in Memprechtshofen on January 9, 1762. Anna was born in Memprechtshofen on February 8, 1731. Johann died in Memprechtshofen on March 10, 1800. Anna died probably in Memprechtshofen in about 1805. Johann and Anna were the parents of:
    • Anna Maria Briß was born in Memprechtshofen, Baden, Germany, on August 14, 1764. Anna married Mathias Geißert III in Freistett, Baden, Germany, on April 8, 1788. Mathias was born in Freistett on September 2, 1763. Mathias died in Freistett on June 29, 1842. Anna died in Freistett on February 22, 1847. Anna and Mathias were the parents of:
    • Anna Maria Geißert was born in Freistett, Baden, Germany, on December 8, 1796. Anna married Friedrich Volk in Freistett on December 26, 1816. Friedrich was born in Freistett on July 8, 1796. Anna died in San Antonio, Bexar County, TX, USA, on February 22, 1847. Friedrich died in San Antonio after November 17, 1850. Anna and Friedrich were the parents of:
    • Rosina Volk was born in Freistett, Baden, Germany, on April 27, 1828. Rosina married William C. Schaub in San Antonio, Bexar County, TX, USA, before February 1848. William was born in Hessen-Kassel, Germany, before August 20, 1818. William died in San Antonio on September 13, 1875. Rosina died in San Antonio on February 4, 1876. Rosina and William were the parents of:
    • Lillie Schaub was born in San Antonio, Bexar County, TX, USA, on July 28, 1863. Lillie married Joannes Wendelinus Nürrenberg in Waco, McLennan County, TX, USA, on June 7, 1880. Joannes was born in Jammelshofen, Rhineland, Germany, on July 13, 1840. Joannes died in Nashville, Howard County, AR, USA, on January 21, 1904. Lillie died in Nashville on December 19, 1946. Lillie and Joannes were the parents of:
    • Frieda Beatrice Newberg was born in Nashville, Howard County, AR, USA, on April 3, 1902. Frieda married Willie Moses Potter in Nashville on December 25, 1925. Willie was born in Nathan, Pike County, AR, USA, on May 3, 1901. Frieda died in Durant, Bryan County, OK, USA, on May 12, 1971. Willie died in Durant on July 16, 1978. Frieda and Willie were the parents of:
    • Thomas Henry Potter was born in Durant, Bryan County, OK, USA, on January 14, 1928. Thomas married Carla Gene Whittaker in Durant on June 6, 1954. Carla was born in Balko, Beaver County, OK, USA, on September 10, 1934. Thomas died in Tulsa, Tulsa County, OK, USA, on September 3, 2008. Carla died in Perkins, Payne County, OK, USA, on August 1, 2019.

Conclusion

We honor our Sephardic Jewish ancestors for their courage, persistence, and faith. As the apostle Paul explained: “They are Israelites, and to them belong the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises. To them belong the patriarchs, and from their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ, who is God over all, blessed forever. Amen.” (Rom 9:1-5)

We also deplore the antisemitic acts of those so-called Christian chimeras, who, down through the ages, have persecuted Jews while pretending to represent Jesus Christ. “God will judge the righteous and the wicked, for there is a time for every matter and for every work.” (Eccl 3:17b)

Pray for the peace of Jerusalem!
May they be secure who love you!
Peace be within your walls
and security within your towers!
For my brothers and companions’ sake
I will say, “Peace be within you!”
For the sake of the house of the Lord our God,
I will seek your good. (Ps 122:6-9)

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______________________

[1] Thomas F. Glick, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: University Press, 1978), 24. (Figure 1)

[2] Dario Fernandez-Morera, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 2023).

[3] Ibid.

[4] All of Scripture affirms that this behavior was un-Christian. Here are a few examples. Luke 6:27-31. [Jesus said:] “But I say to you who hear, Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you. To one who strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also, and from one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either. Give to everyone who begs from you, and from one who takes away your goods do not demand them back. And as you wish that others would do to you, do so to them.” See also 1 Peter 3:13-17. Now who is there to harm you if you are zealous for what is good? But even if you should suffer for righteousness’ sake, you will be blessed. Have no fear of them, nor be troubled, but in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you; yet do it with gentleness and respect, having a good conscience, so that, when you are slandered, those who revile your good behavior in Christ may be put to shame. For it is better to suffer for doing good, if that should be God’s will, than for doing evil. See also 2 Tim 2:24-26. And the Lord’s servant must not be quarrelsome but kind to everyone, able to teach, patiently enduring evil, correcting his opponents with gentleness. God may perhaps grant them repentance leading to a knowledge of the truth, and they may come to their senses and escape from the snare of the devil, after being captured by him to do his will.

[5] The Alhambra Decree – Edict of the Expulsion of the Jews of Spain (1492),  http://chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.fau.edu/artsandletters/pjhr/chhre/pdf/hh-alhambra-1492-english.pdf

[6] A 1492 Letter Regarding Jewish Property in Spain,  https://mjhnyc.org/blog/1492-letter-regarding-jewish-property-in-spain/#:~:text=The%20King%20and%20Queen%20of,damage%20to%20the%20Spanish%20economy

[7] Rom 15:28. See also Flavious Josephus, translated by William Whiston, The Works of Josephus (Carol Stream, IL: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987), War of the Jews, Book II, Chapter 9, paragraph 6.

[8] Gen 10:2-3.

[9] Heinrich Dittmar, Einiges über den Zustand der deutschen Sprach- und Sittenbildung im siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Zweibrücken, Germany: Druck von A. Kranzbühler, 1854), xviii-xix.

[10] Johann Michael Moscherosch, Wunderliche und wahrhaftige Gesichte Philanders von Sittenwald, electronic edition  https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/autoren/namen/moschero.html

[11] Maximilian Huffschmid, “Beträge zur Lebensbeschreibung und Genealogie Hans Michael Moscheroschs und seiner Familie,” in Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins herausgegeben von der Badischen Historischen Kommission (Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1920) Neue Folge. Band XXXV. Heft 4., 189-190, citing Zeitschrift für Bücherfreunde. Zweiter Jahrgang S. 499. Zeitschr. F. Gesch. d. Oberrh. N. F. XXXV. 2.

[12] Curt von Faber du Faur, “Philander der Geängstigte, und der Expertus Robertus,” in Monatschefte, Dec., 1947, Vol. 39, No. 8 (Dec., 1947), pp. 485-505.

[13] Johann Michael Moscherosch, Wunderliche und wahrhaftige Gesichte Philanders von Sittenwald, electronic edition  https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/autoren/namen/moschero.html

[14] Ibid.

[15] Ernst Alfred Philippson, “Die deutschen Personennamen: Gischichte, Bildung und Bedautung by Wolfgang Fleischer,” in The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 64, No. 2 (Apr., 1965), pp. 350-352.

[16] Ernst Alfred Philippson, “Deutsche Germanen-Ideologie. Vom Humanismus bis zur Gegenwart by Klaus von See,” in The Journal of English and German Philology, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Jul., 1972), pp. 407-410.

[17] Conrad Kent, Thomas Wolber, and Cameron Hewitt, The Lion and the Eagle: German-Spanish Relations over the Centuries (Oxford, UK: Berghahn Books, 2000), 11.

[18] Jeremy Adler and Richard Fardon, Franz Baermann Steiner: A Stranger in the World (Oxford, UK: Berghahn Books, 2021), 88.

[19] Heinrich Dittmar, Einiges über den Zustand der deutschen Sprach- und Sittenbildung im siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Zweibrücken, Germany: Druck von A. Kranzbühler, 1854), xviii-xix.